Direct methods

  • Polarographic electrodes (Eppendorf electrode): measure pO₂ directly in tissue.

  • Invasive, not widely used clinically.

Indirect methods

  • Immunohistochemistry: hypoxia markers like pimonidazole, EF5 bind in low O₂.

  • PET imaging: tracers like FMISO (fluoromisonidazole), FAZA detect hypoxia.

  • MRI: blood oxygen level–dependent (BOLD) and oxygen-enhanced MRI.

Clinical relevance

  • Imaging hypoxia helps in adapting treatment: dose painting, hypoxia-targeted drugs.

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